Environmental issues are subordinate to the strategic imperative of countering US influence. That could ultimately weaken the relationship amid shake-ups in global trade.

Hydrogen fuel generated from solar struggles to stay below emissions thresholds set for clean hydrogen, though this mode of production is set to dominate. By comparison, hydrogen produced from wind, hydropower and nuclear energy is meeting clean hydrogen standards.

A charge on emissions for cargo vessels would become the first global carbon price, but disagreements on system design and starting prices remain.

EB Studio Indonesia will still be using coal by 2060, alongside emerging energy sources such as hydrogen and ammonia, policymakers said at an event in Jakarta. Indonesia has the potential to be a regional renewables powerhouse, but barriers such as fossil fuel subsidies are slowing the transition.